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. In, the ulama (;: علماء ʿUlamāʾ, singular عالِم ʿĀlim, 'scholar', literally 'the learned ones', also spelled ulema; feminine: alimah singular and uluma plural), are the guardians, transmitters and interpreters of religious knowledge, of Islamic doctrine and law. By longstanding tradition, ulama are educated in religious institutions.
The, (authentic ), (analogical reasoning, for Sunni Islam) or ('dialectical reasoning', for ), (juridical consensus) are the sources of traditional. Ijazah (diploma of competency) in Arabic calligraphy, written by 'Ali Ra'if Efendi in 1206 AH (1791 AD) Students did not associate themselves with a specific educational institution, but rather sought to join renowned teachers.
By tradition, a scholar who had completed his studies was approved by his teacher. At the teacher's individual discretion, the student was given the permission for teaching and for the issuing of legal opinions. The official approval was known as the ('license to teach and issue legal opinions'). Through time, this practice established a chain of teachers and pupils who became teachers in their own time. Places of learning.
Endowment charter (vakıf-nāme) of the mosque, madrasa and soup kitchen in Jerusalem The traditional place of higher education was the. The institution likely came up in during the 10th century AD, and spread to other parts of the Islamic world from the late 11th century onwards. The most famous early madrasas are the Sunni, founded by the vizir (1018–1092) in in the 11th century. The, established by the in in 1234 AD, was the first to be founded by a caliph, and also the first known to host teachers of all four major known at that time. From the time of the (1260–1335 AD) and the (1370–1507 AD) onwards, madrasas often became part of an architectural complex which also included a mosque, a Sufi, and other buildings of socio-cultural function, like or a.
Madrasas were merely (sacred) places of learning. They provided boarding and salaries to a limited number of teachers, and boarding for a number of students out of the revenue from religious endowments , allocated to a specific institution by the donor. In later times, the deeds of endowment were issued in elaborate, as is the case for Ottoman endowment books (vakıf-name). The donor could also specify the subjects to be taught, the qualification of the teachers, or which madhhab the teaching should follow. However, the donor was free to specify in detail the curriculum, as was shown by Ahmed and Filipovic (2004) for the Ottoman imperial madrasas founded. As Berkey (1992) has described in detail for the education in medieval, unlike medieval Western universities, in general madrasas had no distinct curriculum, and did not issue diplomas.
The educational activities of the madrasas focused on the law, but also included what Zaman (2010) called 'Sharia sciences' (al-ʿulūm al-naqliyya) as well as the rational sciences like philosophy, astronomy, mathematics or medicine. The inclusion of these sciences sometimes reflect the personal interests of their donors, but also indicate that scholars often studied various different sciences. Branches of learning Mysticism. Main article: Early on in Islamic history, a line of thought developed around the idea of, striving for the perfection of worship.
Originating out of Syria and Iraq rather than the Hijaz, the idea of Sufism was related to devotional practices of eastern Christian, although is discouraged by the Quran. During the first Islamic century, (642–728 AD) was one of the first Muslim scholars to describe, according to (1991) 'the sense of the distance and nearness of God. In the language of love'. During the 7th century, the ritual of evolved as a 'way of freeing the soul from the distractions of the world'.
Important early scholars who further elaborated on mysticism were (781–857 AD) and (835–910 AD). Philosophy and ethics. Main article: The brought about Arab Muslim rule over large parts of the. During the time of the, at latest, the scholars of the emerging Islamic society had become familiar with the classical philosophical and scientific traditions of the world they had conquered.
The collection of classical works and their translation into the Arabian language initiated a period which is known today as the. According to Hourani (1991), the works of the classical scholars of antiquity were met with considerable intellectual curiosity by Islamic scholars. Hourani quotes (c. 801–873 AD), 'the father of Islamic philosophy', as follows: 'We should not be ashamed to acknowledge truth from whatever source it comes to us, even if it is brought to us by former generations and foreign peoples. For him who seeks the truth there is nothing of higher value than truth itself.'
The works of, in particular his, had a profound influence on the Islamic scholars of the Golden Age like (870–950 AD), (d. 992 AD) and (ca. 980–1037 AD). In general, the Islamic philosophers saw no contradiction between philosophy and the religion of Islam. However, according to Hourani, al-Farabi also wrote that philosophy in its pure form was reserved for an intellectual elite, and that ordinary people should rely for guidance on the sharia. The distinction between a scholarly elite and the less educated masses 'was to become a commonplace of Islamic thought'.
As exemplified by the works of (854–925 AD), during later times, philosophy 'was carried on as a private activity, largely by medical men, pursued with discretion, and often met with suspicion'. The founder of Islamic philosophical ethics is (932–1030 AD) He combined Aristotelian and Islamic ethics, explicitly mentioning the Nicomachean Ethics and its interpretation by as the foundation of his philosophical thoughts. In the 12th century, the early Islamic which had developed out of was effectively criticised by, one of the most influential scholars of Islam. In his works (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Mizan al-'amal (Criterion of Action) and (The Alchemy of Happiness), he refuted the, and demonstrated that the Aristotlean ethics is incompatible with Islamic ethics: The latter is based on the belief in God and in life after death, which together provide the foundation of action in the pursuit of (Happiness). Main article: According to, the authority to interpret the messages of the and the lies with the, a line of infallible interpreters of the truth.
The majority, however, reject this concept and maintain that Gods Will has been completely revealed in the Quran and of the Prophet. The capacity of its interpretation lies with the ulama. By the eleventh century, the major schools of law had emerged.
Whilst, historically, the schools were at times engaged in mutual conflicts, the differences became less controversial over time, and merely represent regional predominances today. The four most important of them are:. (, ). ( and ).
( and, ). (most common in the ) Shia madhhab include the and schools.
Minor madhhab also mentioned in the are the and the schools. All Sunni madhhabs recognize four sources of (divine law): the Quran, (authentic hadith), (analogical reasoning), and (juridical consensus).
However, the madhhabs differ from each other in their conception of the, or uṣūl al-fiqh, as briefly summarised by Hourani (1991). The Hanbalis only accepted the consensus of the (aṣ-ṣaḥābah), which gave more leeway to independent reasoning within the boundaries of the rules of qiyās.
The Hanafis hold that strict analogy may at times be supported by a limited use of juristic preference , whereas the Maliki school also allows pragmatic considerations in the interest of public welfare are also acceptable. Instead of the Sunni concept of analogy (qiyās), Shia ulama prefer 'dialectical reasoning' to deduce law. The body of substantive jurisprudence defines the proper way of life through interpretation of sharia, which Muslims should follow if they want to live according to God's will. Over time, the madhhabs established 'codes of conduct', examining human actions in the light of the Quran and Hadith. Supplementing the sharia were customs within a given society.
Islamic law and regional customs were not opposed to each other: In 15th century Morocco, were allowed to use a process called ʻamal in order to choose from different juridical opinions one which applied best to the local customs, even if they were not supported by the consensus of the majority. More often, the use of sharia led to changes in local customs. Theology. Main articles: and, the 'science of discourse', also termed 'Islamic theology', serves to explain and defend the doctrine of the Quran and Hadith. The concept of kalām was introduced during the first Islamic centuries by the school. One of the most prominent scholars of the Muʿtazila was (935–1025 AD). From the 11th century on, the Muʿtazila was suppressed by the Sunni and the, but it continued playing an important role in the formation of Shia theology.
The school encouraged the use of Kalām as the basis of fiqh, and was followed in this approach by parts of the Shafi'i madhhab. In contrast, the Hanbali and Maliki madhhabs discouraged theological speculation. (853–944 AD) developed his own form of Kalām, differing from the Ash'ari view in the question of Man's free will and God's omnipotence. Maturidi Kalām was often used in combination with Hanafi fiqh in the northwestern parts of the Islamic world. A distinct school of theology often called emerged under the leadership of in the early centuries of Islam among hadith scholars who rejected rationalistic argumentation. In the wake of the Ash'arite synthesis between Mu'tazilite rationalism and literalism, its original form survived among a minority of mostly Hanbalite scholars. While and are often called the Sunni 'orthodoxy', traditionalist theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith.
Islamic theology experienced further developments among. Cosmopolitan scholarly tradition The study of, and commentaries on Quran and hadith, debates about ijtihad and taqlid and the issuing of fatwa as well as the use of Arabic, and later also Persian as common languages of discourse constituted the religious authority of the ulama throughout the entire Islamic world. Zaman (2010) has demonstrated that, as personal contacts were key to acquiring knowledge, Islamic scholars sometimes travelled far in search of knowledge (ṭalab al-ʿilm). Due to their common training and language, any scholars travelling from one region of the Islamic world to another could easily integrate themselves into the local Muslim community and hold offices there: The traveller (1304–1368 or 1369), born in, Morocco, to a family of ulema, was appointed qadi by Sultan of. 1658), born to a family, travelled to, and worked as Shaykh ul-Islam in modern-day under the protection of,. Both scholars were able to move freely in an 'interconnected world of fellow scholars'. According to Zaman, their offices and positions as respected scholars were only questioned if they proved themselves unfamiliar with local customs (as happened to Ibn Baṭūṭah), or met resistance from opponents with stronger local roots (ar-Raniri).
Through their travels and teachings, ulama were able to transmit new knowledge and ideas over considerable distances. However, according to Zaman (2010), scholars were often required to rely on commonly known texts which could support their fatwas. A text which might be widely known within the intellectual circles of one region could be unknown in another. The ability of scholars from one region to support their argument in another might therefore be limited by the familiarity with the respective texts of the community they were working in. Likewise, in an era without book print or mass communication media, a scholar's reputation might remain limited if he was unfamiliar with the local canon of texts.
As the, the scholar's approval by another master, was key to the scholar's reputation, the latter would be greater in regions where the approving masters were more widely known. Political history of the ulama Early Muslim communities The formative period of stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities.
In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory. Progress in theory began to develop with the coming of the early Muslim jurist (767–820), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah. The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, and ) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) must be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language. According to Feldman (2008), under many Muslim caliphate states and later states ruled by sultans, the ulama were regarded as the guardians of Islamic law and prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results, with the ruler and ulama forming a sort of 'separation of powers' in government. Laws were decided based on the (consensus) of the (community), which was most often represented by the legal scholars.
Early modern Islamic empires The Sunni Ottoman, and the Safavid Persian dynasties, rulers of the two opponent early modern Islamic empires, both relied on ulama in order to legitimise their power. In both empires, ulama patronised by the royal courts created 'official' religious doctrines which supported the dynastic rule. At the high points of their political power, respectively, the development took different paths: The Ottoman Sultan successfully integrated the imperial ulama into the imperial bureaucracy, and Ottoman secular law into Islamic law. In contrast, Shah was unable to gain similar support by the Shi'a ulama, who retained a more independent position. During the late Safavid empire, the Shi'a ulama developed into one of the warrantors of continuity in a period of instability of the central government, thus securing a relative independency which they retained during the reign of subsequent dynasties. Ottoman imperial Sunni ulama. Quran studies class in the in Lahore Islam, unlike Christianity, does not know a centralised process of of its clergy.
The traditional way of education and training relied largely on personal relationships between a teacher and his students. Whenever Islamic national governments tried to influence their regional ulama, they did so by controlling their income, or by establishing state-controlled schools and high schools. Traditional madrasas, representing merely decentralised 'places of learning' and not institutions comparable to Western universities, often remained beyond state control. Whenever the state failed to control the resources of the madrasas, e.g., by controlling the income from religious endowments, or collecting Muslim taxes on behalf of the clergy, the ulama also retained the independence of their teaching. In particular, this held to be true in the Arabian provinces of the Ottoman Empire and the Arabian national states which arose out of the empire after the First World War. For many people living in the poorer Islamic countries of today, especially those without natural resources like, the madrasa system, privately sponsored by foreign aid and not or insufficiently controlled by the state, often constitutes their only access to some form of education and social rise. Saudi Arabian humanitarian organizations use the madrasas they sponsor to spread their doctrine, whilst Shiite madrasas are frequently influenced by the Islamic Republic of Iran.
The originated largely from institutions which were financially independent from the state, and beyond its control. This led to a resurgence of the social and political influence of the traditional ulama in at least some countries.
Insufficient state control over the educational institutions and the frequently insufficient qualification of the teachers remain an issue, as does the ideologic indoctrination and the future professional perspectives of the graduates. Modern challenges Some opinions from within the Muslim world have criticized the lack of scientific training of the ulama, and argued that those proficient in the sciences should qualify for this title. In Egypt, the Al-Azhar University has begun to introduce scientific and practical subjects in its traditional theological colleges to help the ulama face the challenges of the modern world. Hanif states: A religious hierarchy on the defensive against nationalists, secularists, modernists, apologists fundamentalists and romantics, and, possibly even in the bad books of the government of the day, trained only to transmit traditional knowledge in a parrot-like fashion is not likely to use its influence with the broad masses for the promotion of a modern approach to social and political life. See also.
Imam khatib (Sunni Islam).